Oh, Man Kyu

 This Subject has been dealt in two practical concerns: (1) the relationship between the early church and the state, and (2) the ethical attitudes of early Christians toward war and Military service. (271.1)

 Modern studies on this subject were motivated by two major historical events: (1) the Kultur Kamf, the conflict between Bismark and the Roman Catholic church, and (2) the first world war. (271.2)

 This subject has been dealt with in an astonished variety of ways which reflect the different backgrounds of various interest group, such as Roman Catholics, Protestant Pacifists, and the Protest “establishment.” The differences did not come from the historical sources themselves, but from the various points of interpretation. (271.3)

 Traditionally, Roman Catholic Writers tried to describe the early church as being loyal to the Roman government. Idolatrous practices in the army were the main reasons for the crisis between the church and military service. Protestants who condoned Christian participation in warfare followed largely the Catholic view. But they showed more diverse concerns in the descriptions of early church attitudes. Protestant pacifists have tried to show that even thought it is difficult to ignore the seriousness of idolatry in the army, the more determining factor influencing Christians to refuse military service was their aversion to bloodshed. (271.4)

 These differences may reflect the various experiences and understanding of early Christianity itself. But it cannot be denied that students have felt that a certain objectivity and fairness are lacking in these studies. Hence recent studies have made many efforts to overcome confessional bias and have paid more attention to the relatively neglected areas of the acts of martyrs, the tombstones of Christian soldiers, and Roman army itself. (272.1)

 The first thing we have to clear up in whether the Christians served in the army or not, and how they served if they served. Until the decade of A.D. 170-180 there are no literary or epigraphic evidence for Christian soldiers in the army. We have our first testimony of Christians in the army in the so-called thundering legion (Legio XII Fulminato) under Marcus Aurellius in the year A.D. 173. This legion was stationed in Melitene, Cappadocia (Modern eastern Turcky). (272.2)

 From the year A.D. 173 and onwards evidence of Christians in the rank and controversies over military service increased. Tertullian, in Apology written in A.D. 197, refuted the charge of misanthropy which was leveled against Christians by pointing to their presence in the palace, the Senate, the forum, and the army. His stern rebuke in the De Corona (A.D. 211) of voluntary enlistment is a witness to the practice which he condemned along with Christian rejection of military service. The number of Christians in the army is considered to have increase during the latter part of the third century, because even before the great persecution of A.D. 303-4, Galerius sought to weed Christians out of his forces. When persecution broke out a number of Christians in the armies of Constantine and Lincinius in their campaign against Maxentius and Maximus Daza. Licinius himself prescribed for his soldiers a form of prayer, which was monotheistic, if not overtly Christian. The whole matter began to take a decisive turn with the reign of Constantine. We hear of no more military martyrdoms. Strangely enough, laws were enacted prescribing severe ecclesiastical penalties for desertion in time of peace. In A.D. 416 Theodsius II was to exclude pagan from the army of the empire. and two centuries later, it was only with difficulty that the emperor Phocas was dissuaded from his opinion that all his soldiers who met a heroic death in battle should be honored as martyrs. From this it was but a step to the idea of the crusade, a holy war on behalf of the Christian church. (272.3)

 Our data permits a more geographical classification. The results indicate that participation in the army flourished more in the frontier provinces managed by barbarians than within the interior of the Pax Romana. The section most disinclined to participate in military service appears to have been the Hellenistic East. In northern Africa there is evidence alike of the acceptance and rejection of military service. (273.1)

 Of the eight pre-Constantinian inscriptions mentioning Christian soldiers, one is from Besancon, one from Phrygia, and six from Rome. Some historians assume that Rome may have been ahead of other Christian communities in relaxing opposition to military service. (274.1)

 The most indisputable and persistent tradition of Christian sanction for participation in warfare comes from the eastern province of Melitene in southern provinces. The thundering legion was recruiter in the province of Melitene in southern Armenia. But the same period from A.D. 180 to the time of Constantine exhibits both in the east and west a number of more or less explicit condemnations of military service. (274.2)

 Some recent studies have tried to show that the early church's abstaining from military service did not exist. And some of their arguments are valid. But the position that Christians did not voluntarily participate in military service is still persuasive. The explanation can be considered from both sides: the church and the Roman Empire (274.3)

 (1) The baptized Christians did not become soldiers, for Christianity prohibited military service on the principle that war involved bloodshed. The unqualified military oath conflicted with the unqualified duty of Christians to God. The imperial cultus came specially to the front. The conduct of soldiers during peace (their extortion, license, and police duties) was as opposed to Christian ethics as their debauchery and sports. The early Christian's eschatology and “interim ethics” prevented them from getting involved in the passing world. (274.4)

 (2) From Nero (A.D. 54-68) to Constantine (A.D. 306-337) the practice of Christianity was a misdemeanor punishable by death. In the army it was harder to conceal religious nonconformity. Even apart from danger to the faith, there was some likelihood that the eventual discovery of the believers adherence to Christianity would bring persecution of the Christian community of the place. (3) In the times of the Pax Romana, Roman military formations could be filled without recourse to the Christian minority. In fact there were practically no conscriptions. (4) The expansion of Christianity had taken place chiefly among civilians in urban centers. Conversion to Christianity from ranks of the army were very few. (5) During the decade A.D. 170-80 Celsus, the heathen philosopher, reproached Christian that “if all men did as the Christians, in the end no one could prevent the emperor from being left alone and deserted and the government of the earth falling the hands of the most lawless and savage barbarians.” Such words are so explicit as to warrant the assumption that Celsus knew of no Christians who would accept military service. (275.1)

 But why this increase of Christian soldiers since A.D. 170-80. From the end of second century, soldiers frequently came in contact with Christian missions and were converted. With this the “military” problem emerged. Could they, then, as Christians, remain in their former calling. (275.2)

 It is only in this form that the question arose; the possibility of Christians from birth enlisting voluntarily had not yet been discussed. Another possibility is Christian conscription into the army. From the third quarter of the second century and almost continually thereafter, Rome was strictly on the defensive and the very existence of the empire was at stake. By A.D. 180 relatively large numbers of the inhabitants of the empire had came Christians and movement to the church was increasing in strength. Christians were no longer an exceptional minority, exempt from the duty of defending the empire. Military reform was required. The term of service had to be lengthened. Children of the camps and of the religion adjacent to the permanent stations of the legions were pressed into service. Octavian Augustus himself formulated the principle that the defence of the empire was a task in which the provincials were expected ito take a considerable part. Hadrian (A.D. 117-38) laid down as basic procedure that the forces should be recruited from among the inhabitants of the provinces in which the several units were quartered. Especially under Septimus Serverus (A.D. 193-211) the Roman-Italic elements in the services lost whatever privileges they still retained. Even before this time, the Rome army had the legions auxiliary forces, beside the legions, which took virtually anyone. Septimus Severus regularized to a degree the unions between soldiers and the women of the camp. The policy of Serverus showed an increasing respectability for the military profession and this might have given a big incentive to baptized Christians to join the army. The challenge of the ethics of citizenship and the trend of secularism within the church should be considered. (275.3)

 Then, what made the Christian soldiers suffer? And how did Christian soldiers deal with the suffering. The records of soldier martyrs constitute most notable evidence of their sufferings. Martyrs in the army appear to have been relatively more numerous than among civilians. All conflicts between Christian soldiers and the army came from two competing authorities-the Christians God and the Roman Empire, who demanded their unconditional loyalty. Christian loyalty to God was challenged by two commandments: (1) abstention from idolatry, and (2) abstention from bloodshedding. And these requirements clashed with practices of royalty to the Empire. The military oath, imperial cultus, veneration for the regimental colours, and certain military distinctions such as the crown considered to be idolatry. The bearing of arms, killing in battle, executing the death-penalty, imprisonment, and torturing of the people were all considered to be forms of breaking the sixth commandment. (277.1)

 In these conflicts, some of the Christian soldiers, under the impulse of their Christian conscience, deliberately committed a breach of military discipline and marched off to prison for their offense. But many of them chose to continue their service and to keep their conscience in many other ways. Soldiers had other occupations besides fighting, and worked as fire-fighters, policemen, mailmen, and guard. This great diversity of responsibilities made it possible for Christian soldiers to continue in the service without having to shed blood. (277.2)

 Another expedient way was to make the sine of the cross when the sacrifice began. And up to the persecution of Galerius and the Great Persecution, especially after the reign of Gallienus, the military authorities connived with Christianity. But since Diocletian, who incited by pagan priests, made Christians the scapegoats for the imperial problem, this formal exemption, this formal exemption hardly applied to the Christian soldier officers. Trajan's advice, given two centuries earlier, that Christians were not to be sought out, was completely abandoned. And “the first object of the persecution was believers in the army.” (277.3)